In this article, we will explore everything related to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, from its origins to its impact on modern society. Jewish Babylonian Aramaic has been a topic of interest for decades, its roots go back to ancient times and its relevance is still palpable today. Throughout history, Jewish Babylonian Aramaic has sparked debate, been a source of inspiration for artists, and had a significant impact on popular culture. In this article, we will examine the most relevant aspects of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, from its meaning in society to its evolution over time.
Middle Aramaic language once used by Jewish writers in Lower Mesopotamia
"Talmudic Aramaic" redirects here. For the language of the Jerusalem Talmud, see Jewish Palestinian Aramaic.
Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (Aramaic: ארמיתĀrāmît) was the form of Middle Aramaic employed by writers in Lower Mesopotamia between the fourth and eleventh centuries. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian Talmud (which was completed in the seventh century), the Targum Onqelos, and of post-Talmudic (Gaonic) literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Jews. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of inscriptions on incantation bowls.
Classification and type
The language was closely related to other Eastern Aramaic dialects such as Mandaic. Its original pronunciation is uncertain, and has to be reconstructed with the help of these kindred dialects and of the reading tradition of the Yemenite Jews, and where available those of the Iraqi, Syrian and Egyptian Jews.[citation needed] The value of the Yemenite reading tradition has been challenged by Matthew Morgenstern. (The vocalized Aramaic texts with which Jews are familiar, from the Bible and the prayer book, are of limited usefulness for this purpose, as they are in different dialects.)
Talmudic Aramaic bears all the marks of being a specialist language of study and legal argumentation, like Law French,[citation needed] rather than a vernacular mother tongue,[citation needed] and continued in use for these purposes long after Judeo-Arabic had become the languages of daily life. It has developed a battery of technical logical terms, such as tiyuvta (conclusive refutation) and tiqu (undecidable moot point), which are still used in Jewish legal writings, including those in other languages, and have influenced modern Hebrew.[citation needed]
מי ידענא היכא ניהו Do I know where he is (Sanhedrin 39a) הי ניהו which is it (Nid. 41b)
ניהי
Third person, singular, feminine
נן
First person, plural, common
זוטרינן we are young (Baba Qama 92b)
תו(ן)
Second person, plural, masculine
חכימתו You (masculine plural) are wise (Gitin 56b)
נינהו
Third person, plural, masculine
הני הילכתה נינהו These are laws from tradition (they) Mo'ed Qatan 3b גזלני נינהו Robbers, they (Baba Batra 100a) סהדי שקרי נינהו Lying witnesses, they (Baba Batra 92b)
נינהי
Third person, plural, feminine
קדושה והבדלה חדה מילתא נינהי Qedusha and Havdalah are one thing, they are (Pesah 102b) כולהי חדא ברכתא נינהי all one long blessing, they are (Pesah 103b)
Genitive pronominal suffixes ">edit]
Genitive pronominal suffix
Genitive pronominal suffix (Hebrew)
Meaning
Examples
ַ אי
ִ י
First person, singular possessive. My
נַפְשַאי my person (jevamot 64b) דוּכְתַּאי my position (ketuvot 77b)
ִי ךְ
ְ ךָ
Second person, singular, possessive. Your
פְּסוּקִיךְ your verse (chagiga 15)
ָ ךְ
ֵ ךְ
Second person, singular, possessive. Your
רַבָּךְ your teacher (pesachim 24) שוּפְרָךְ your beauty (Bava Metzia 84a) אמר ליה {רבי יוחנן} חילך לאורייתא {כמה יפה כוחך לסבול עול תורה} אמר ליה{ריש לקיש} שופרך לנשי {יופיך ראוי לנשים}
ֵי הּ
וֹ
Third person, singular, masculine possessive. His
יְהֵא שְׁמֵיהּ רַבָּא מְבָרַךְ
May his great name shall be blessed
(Kaddish Shalem, 8th century)
ָ הּ
ָ הּ
Third person, singular, feminine possessive. Her
אסירא לייחודי בגברא דלא דידָהּ She is forbidden to be together in the room alone with a man who is not her husband (Erubin 100b)
ִי ן
ֵ נוּ
First person, plural possessive. Our
אַרְעִין our land (shanhedrin 94)
ַ יְכוּ
ְ כֶם
Second person, plural, masculine possessive. Your
גַבְרַיְיכוּ Your men (Shabbat 140b)
ַ יְיכִי
ְ כֶן
Second person, plural, feminine possessive. Your
קַרְחַיְיכִי your baldness (pesachim 110) פַּרְחַיְיכִי your crumbs (pesachim 110)
ַ יְהוּ
ָ ם
Third person, plural, masculine possessive. Their
מָנַיְיהוּ their clothes (Shabbat 133b) מִינַיְיהוּ(ן) from the men
ַ יְהִי
ָ ן
Third person, plural, feminine possessive. Their
עָלַיְיהִי(ן) about the women
Suffix + אִית
Meaning
Examples
אִיתֵיהּ
He is/exists
אִיתָהּ
She is/exists
אִיתְנָן
We are/exist
אִיתַנְכוּ
You (pl. m.) are/exist
אִיתַנְכִי
You (pl. f.) are/exist
אִיתַנְהוּ
They (m.) are/exist
אִיתַנְהִי
They (f.) are/exist
Demonstrative pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun (near/proximal)
Meaning
Examples
הַאי(י)
Third person, singular, masculine demonstrative. This (Hebrew:זֶה)
מהַאי גִּיסָא ומהַאי גִּיסָא אַדַּעְתָּא דְדיקלא on the one side ... , on the other side with precise intention for האיי דיאנא this judge האיי קלא this voice
הָא
Third person, singular, feminine demonstrative. This (Hebrew:זֹאת)
הא מילתא this word/thing
הָ(א)נֵי
Third person, plural, masculine demonstrative. These (Hebrew:אֵלֶּה, אֵלּוּ)
הָנֵי מילי these words/things
הָנֵי
Third person, plural, feminine demonstrative. These (Hebrew:אֵלֶּה, אֵלּוּ)
הָנֵי אִין הָנַך לאָ (Chagiga 11b) (These yes, those not )
Demonstrative pronoun (medial)
Meaning
Examples
הַאי(י)+ךְ←הַאִיךְ
Third person, singular, masculine demonstrative. That
איתתיה דהאייך His wife of that (man)
הָא+ךְ←הָךְ
Third person, singular, feminine demonstrative. That
הך ארעא that land הך לשנא that language
הָ(א)נֵי+ךְ←הָנַךְ
Third person, plural, masculine demonstrative. Those
מן הָנַךְ טעמי Because of those reasons הָנַךְ אֲזַלוּ לְעָלְמָא והָנֵי אַחֲרִינֵי נינהו Those others have gone away, and these are others here
הָנֵי+ךְ←הָנַךְ
Third person, plural, feminine demonstrative. Those
הָנֵי אִין הָנַך לאָ (Chagiga 11b) (These yes, those not )
Demonstrative pronoun (remote/distal)
Meaning
Examples
הָהוּ(א)
Third person, singular, masculine demonstrative. That (Hebrew:הוּא)
הָהוּא גַבְרָא (Berachot 6b) (any man, anybody, that man )
הָהִי(א)
Third person, singular, feminine demonstrative. That (Hebrew:הִיא)
הָהִיא אִתְּתָא דַאֲתָא לְקָמֵיהּ (nedarim 50b) (That woman, who came before him )
הָנְהוּ
Third person, plural, masculine demonstrative. Those (Hebrew:הֵם)
הָנְהִי
Third person, plural, feminine demonstrative. Those (Hebrew:הֵן)
Accusative pronominal suffixes ">edit]
Accusative pronominal suffix
Meaning
Examples
ַ ן
ַ
ני
First person, singular, common
גַנְבַן (Nedarim 62) he stole me
נַטְרַנִי he supervised me
נֵיעָרְבִינְהוּ וְנִכְתְּבִינְהוּ
ך
Second person, singular, masculine
יך
Second person, singular, feminine
יה
Third person, feminine, singular
ה
Third person, masculine, singular
ה
Third person, masculine, singular
ינן
First person, plural, common
ינכו
second person, plural, masculine
נכי
second person, plural, feminine
ינון / ינ(ה)ו
Third person, plural, masculine
נֵיעָרְבִינְהוּ וְנִכְתְּבִינְהוּ (pessachim 13) he shall put them (the words) together and write them
ינון / י(נ)הי
Third person, plural, feminine
וּרְמִי אִינְהִי ← וּרְמִינְהִי (berachot 9) you shall opposite them (the two sentences)
Six major verbal patterns
There are six major verb stems or verbal patterns (binyanim) in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. The form pe‘al (פְּעַל) “to do”, the form Aph'el (אַפְעֵל) “let do”, and the form Pa'el (פַּעֵל) “like to do”, are all in the active voice. But the form Itpe'el (אִתְפְּעֵל), the form Itaph'al (אִתַפְעַל) and the form Itpa'al (אִתְפַּעַל) are essentially reflexive and usually function in a passive sense.
Aramaic binyan
Hebrew binyan
Aramaic example
Hebrew parallel
English translation
פְּעַל Pe'al
קַל Qal/Pa'al
כְּתַב
כָּתַב
he wrote
אִתְפְּעֵל Itpe'el
נִפְעַל Niphal
אִתְכְּתֵיב
נִכְתַב
it was written
אַפְעֵל Aph'el
הִפְעִיל Hiph'il
אַפְקֵד
הִפְקִיד
he deposited
אִתַפְעַל Itaph'al
הֻפְעַל Huph‘al
אִתַפְקַד
הֻפְקַד
it was deposited
פַּעֵל Pa'el
פִּעֵל Pi'el
קַדֵּיש
קִדֵּש
he sanctifed
אִתְפַּעַל Itpa'al
הִתְפַּעֵל Hitpa'el
וְיִתְקַדַּשׁ
הִתְקַדֵּשׁ
it was sanctifed
Verbal pattern (binyan): pe‘al (פְּעַל) Basic Verb – Active
past tense
Aramaic verb WROTE
Hebrew verb parallel WROTE
Romanization of Aramaic
Romanization of Hebrew
English translation
אֲנָא כְּתַבִית
אֲנִי כָּתַבְתִּי
ana k'tavit
ani katavti
I wrote
אַתְּ כְּתַבְתְּ
אַתָּה כָּתַבְתָּ
att' k'tavt
atta katavta
you (m.) wrote
אַתְּ כְּתַבְתְּ
אַתְּ כָּתַבְתְּ
att' k'tavt
att' katavt
you (f.) wrote
הוּא כְּתַב
הוּא כָּתַב
hu k'tav
hu katav
he wrote
הִיא כְּתַבָה
הִיא כָּתְבָה
hi k'tava
hi kat'va
she wrote
אֲנָן כְּתַבִינָן
אָנוּ כָּתַבְנוּ
anan k'tavinan
anu katavnu
we wrote
אַתּוּ כְּתַבִיתּוּ
אַתֶּם כְּתַבְתֶּם
attu k'tavitu
attem k'tavtem
you (m.pl.) wrote
אינון כְּתַבוּ
הם כָּתְּבוּ
innun k'tavu
hem katvu
they (m.) wrote
Aramaic verb CAME
Hebrew verb parallel CAME
Romanization of Aramaic
Romanization of Hebrew
English translation
אֲנָא אֲתֵיתִי אֲנָא אֲתַאי
אֲנִי בָּאתִי
ana ateti/ana atai
ani bati
I came
אַתְּ אֲתֵית
אַתָּה בָּאתָ
at atet
ata bata
you (m.) came
אַתְּ ?
אַתְּ בָּאת
at ?
at bat
you (f.) came
הוּא אֲתָא
הוּא בָּא
hu ata
hu ba
he came
הִיא אֲתָת הִיא אֲתַאי הִיא אתיא
הִיא בָּאָה
i atat/atai/atjia
hi ba'a
she came
אֲנָן אֲתַאן אֲנָן אֲתַן אֲנָן אֲתֵינַן
אָנוּ בָּאנוּ
anan atan/atenan
anu banu
we came
אַתּוּ אֲתֵיתוּ
אַתֶּם בָּאתֶם
atu atetu
atem batem
you (m.pl.) came
אינון אֲתוּ
הם בָּאוּ
innun atu
hem ba'u
they (m.) came
אינין אֲתַיָין אינין אֲתַאָן יאינין אתן
הן בָּאוּ
innin attajan
hen ba'u
they (f.) came
Participle
The Aramaic verb has two participles: an active participle with suffix and a passive participle with suffix:
The language has received considerable scholarly attention, as shown in the bibliography below. However, the majority of those who are familiar with it, namely Orthodox Jewish students of Talmud, are given no systematic instruction in the language, and are expected to "sink or swim" in the course of their Talmudic studies, with the help of some informal pointers showing similarities and differences with Hebrew.
^Elitzur Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (2013)
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 78
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 79
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 79
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 99
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 99
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 99
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 100
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 101
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 99
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 99
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 82
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 100
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 100
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 100
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 100
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 65, 66.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 66.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 66.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 66.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 66.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 66.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 66.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 91.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 66.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 66.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 67.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 67.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 67.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 67.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 67.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 67.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 92.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90.
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 67.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 92.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90, 104
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 95.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90, 104
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 95.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90, 104
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90, 104
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90, 104
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90, 104
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 95.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 90, 104
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 95.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 80
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 80
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 80
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 80
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 80
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 73.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 80
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 80
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 73.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 80
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 80
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 80
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 80
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 72.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 80
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 191
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 192
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 91.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 192
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 192
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 194
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 84, 92.
^Elitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal, Introduction to the Grammar of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Ugarit, Münster 2013, p. 194
^Samuel David Luzzatto/Marcus Salomon Krüger:Grammatik der biblisch-chaldäischen Sprache und des Idioms des Thalmud Babli: ein Grundriss, Schletter, Breslau 1873, p. 92.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 18:A survey of the aramaic binyanim.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic: , Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 23:Talmud Bavli Aramaic.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 22:Past tense: binyan.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 123:Past tense: came.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 124:active participle with suffix
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 36:Future tense: binyan.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 25:Past tense: binyan.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 39:Future tense: binyan.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 23:Past tense: binyan.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 37:Future tense: binyan.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 26:Past tense: binyan.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 40:Future tense: banyan.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 24:Past tense: binyan.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p.123 f.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 124:active participle with suffix
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 38:Future tense: binyan.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 125:Future tense: will bring.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1, p. 94:Past tense:was refuted/were refuted.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231-232.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 232.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 232.
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, p. 178:From where is the maxim that people say?
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231-232.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 233: ...in the plural of masculine nouns ... construct forms such as מַלְכֵי are often used not only in the construct state but even in the absolute and emphatic states. Thus, in Babylonian Aramaic, the form מַלְכֵי may mean either the kings of or kings or the kings.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 233.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231.
^Yitzhak Frank: Grammar for Gemara and targum onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic, Ariel Institute, Jerusalem 2011 ISBN978-1-59826-466-1,p. 231.
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, p. 178:From where do we derive these things?
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, p. 230.
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, p. 230: "This participle is often used with a word that has a prepositional prefix – אֵי, to mean basing oneself upon or referring to."
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, p. 229.
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, p. 229: " A contraction of the participle קָאֵים (from the root קום ) is often placed before another participle...it has an emphatic effect that is difficult to translate into English ."
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, p. 153.
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, p. 153: "What new point is he teaching us? This question points out a difficulty: Since the amora's halakha was already known to us from a mishna, a baraita, or the amora's own statement on another occasion – why did the amora present it again?"
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, p. 152.
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, p. 152: "What does he mean? This question seeks a clarification of the meaning of a mishna, a baraitha, an amoraic statement, or a pasuk."
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, p. 260.
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, p. 260: "the hakhamim taught. This expression usually introduces a baraitha that begins with an anonymous statement."
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, p. 178.
^Yitzhak Frank: The Practical Talmud Dictionary, Jerusalem 2001, s. p.178: "From where do we derive these things? What is the source? This question seeks a source for a statement in a mishna, in a baraitha, or by an amora."
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Frank, Yitzhak, Grammar for Gemara: An Introduction to Babylonian Aramaic: Jerusalem, Ariel Institute, 2000 ISBN0-87306-612-X
Jastrow, Marcus, A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature (reprinted many times) ISBN1-56563-860-3
Kara, Yehiel, Babylonian Aramaic in the Yemenite Manuscripts of the Talmud: Orthography, Phonology and Morphology of the Verb: Jerusalem 1983
Klein, Hyman, An Introduction to the Aramaic of the Babylonian Talmud: London 1943
Kutscher, Eduard Yechezkel, Hebrew and Aramaic Studies, ed. Z. Ben-Hayyim, A. Dotan, and G. Sarfatti: Jerusalem, The Magnes Press / The Hebrew University, 1977
Levias, Caspar, A grammar of the Aramaic idiom contained in the Babylonian Talmud: 1900 (reprints available)
Marcus, David, A Manual of Babylonian Jewish Aramaic: University Press of America, Paperback ISBN0-8191-1363-8
Margolis, Max Leopold, A manual of the Aramaic language of the Babylonian Talmud; grammar chrestomathy & glossaries: Munich 1910 (reprints available)
Melamed, Ezra Zion, Dictionary of the Babylonian Talmud, Feldheim 2005 ISBN1-58330-776-1
Morag, Shelomo (1988). Babylonian Aramaic: The Yemenite Tradition – Historical Aspects and Transmission Phonology: the Verbal System . Jerusalem: Ben Zvi Institute. ISBN0-8018-7233-2. (in Hebrew)
Morgenstern, Matthew (2011). Studies in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic Based Upon Early Eastern Manuscripts. Harvard Semitic Studies. ISBN978-1-57506-938-8.
Sokoloff, Michael (2003). A Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the Talmudic and Geonic Periods. Bar Ilan and Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN0-8018-7233-2.