Pakawan languages

Today, in the digital age, Pakawan languages has become a topic of great relevance in today's society. From its impact on the economy to its influence on people's daily lives, Pakawan languages has been the subject of debate and analysis in different areas. With the advancement of technology and globalization, Pakawan languages has become a key factor in human relations, industries and politics. In this article, we will explore the various facets of Pakawan languages and its impact on modern life, as well as possible implications for the future.

Pakawan
Geographic
distribution		Rio Grande Valley
Linguistic classificationHokan ?
Subdivisions
GlottologNone

The Pakawan languages were a small language family spoken in what is today northern Mexico and southern Texas. All Pakawan languages are today extinct.

Classification

Five clear Pakawan languages are attested: Coahuilteco, Cotoname, Comecrudo, Garza and Mamulique. The first three were first proposed to be related by John Wesley Powell in 1891, in a grouping then called Coahuiltecan. Goddard (1979) groups the latter three in a Comecrudan family while considering the others language isolates. The current composition and the present name "Pakawan" are due to Manaster Ramer (1996).

The term Coahuiltecan languages today refers to a slightly expanded and less securely established grouping. Most Pakawan languages have at times been included also in the much larger and highly hypothetical Hokan "stock".

Common vocabulary

The following word comparisons are given by Manaster Ramer (1996):

Core Pakawan Peripheral Pakawan tentative reconstruction
Coahuilteco Comecrudo Cotoname Karankawa Tónkawa
axtē
'two'		 ale-kueten
'two'		 haíkia
'two'		 #al-, #axte
'two'
''
 #ali
'ear'
uxualʼ
'heaven'		 apel
'sky, heaven, clouds'		 #apel'
'sky'
apam
'water'		 áx̣
'water'		 klai, komkom
'water'		 #axə
'juice, water'
tciene
'salt'		 dá-än dem, ketac #dem
'salt'
xāi
'to be extinguished,
to come to an end'		 kai
'to eat'		 aknámas
'to eat'		 #kai
'to eat up, consume'
axām
'not'		 kam
'no'		 kóṃ
'not'		 #kam
'no(t)'
hām
'to eat'		 kam
'to eat'		 hahame, xaxame
'to eat; food'		 #kam
'to eat, drink'
''
 #kamkam
'body of water'
xasal
'heart'		 kayasel
'heart'		 láhama
'heart'		 #kayasel
'heart'
pe=kĕwek
'low (of water)'		 xuăxe
'low (of water)'		 #k(a)waka
'low (of water)'
kemen
'vein'		 kemma
'bow'		 #keme(n)
'sinew, vein'
pa=kna(x)
'high, big'		 kenex
'good'		 #kenex
'good, big'
''
 ō'
'sun'		 klos, dóowal
'sun'		 #ketekawi
'sun, star'
talōm
'fire'		 klewem, klewen, len
 mánĕx
'fire'		 kwátci, kwoilesem
'fire'		 #klewem
'fire'
''
 kĕnám kanín #knem
'breast'
kuas kial sä'x #kual
'blood'
kuan
'to go'		 kio; kie
'to go'; 'to come'		 awóyo!
'go over there!'		 #kuV-
'to go, come'
k’āu
'husband'		 gnax, na
'man'		 xuaináxe
'man'		 #kwainaxə
'man'
''
 kuak
'reed, cane; arrow'		 ka-u, kau
'reed; arrow'		 #kwak
'reed'
pe=kla
'to suck'		 huäxle
'to suck'		 #kwa(x/k?)la
'to suck'
kʼāu
'to marry'		 kuau, kwai
'married'		 #k'aw
'to marry'
''
 wax
'belly'		 kox
'belly'		 #k'wax
'belly'
tšum
'night, evening'		 lesum, lesom
'evening'		 #lesum
'evening'
''
 #lel
'buttock, leg'
''
 katówan #lot
'arm'
''
 #makə
'to give'
masõ
'to give up, abandon,
desert, leave'		 mel, pa=mesai
'to fall'		 #maɬ-
'to fall'
māux
'hand'		 mapi
'hand'		 miapa
'wing'		 #mapi
'hand'
pa=msol, pa=msul
'red'		 msae
'red'		 #msa'ol
'red'
el-pau
'to kneel down,
sink or sit down'		 pawe
'to sit'		 #pawə
'to sit'
pilʼ
'one'		 pe-kueten
'one'		 #pil'
'one'
ānua
'moon'		 kan
'moon'		 #q'an
'moon'
saayēx
'to be wanting'		 #sayex
'to want'
sel
'straw'		 suau
'grass, tobacco;
to smoke'		 #sel
'grass'
pa=kahuai, -kawai
'to write, paint; paper'		 thawe
'painted
(on body, face)'		 #tkawai
'paint'
tʼāhaka, tʼāxakan
'what'		 tete
'how, what, why'		 *tit
'what'		 #t'ete-
'what'
tʼil
'day'		 al
'sun'		 o
'sun'		 #t'al
'sun'
xop
'far, distant'		 huanpa, xuanpa
'far'		 #xwanpa
'far'
''
 yá-ĕx #ya'ex
'nose'
yēwal
'to bewitch'		 yamel, yamis
'devil'		 #yameɬ
'evil spirit'
na-
'my, me'		 na
'I'		 na
'I'
mai-
'2PS subject prefix'		 emnã
'you (sg.)'		 *men
'you (sg.)'
pamawau
la-ak
'goose'		 krak
'goose'
kol
'crane'		 karakor
'crane'
ketuau
'dog'		 kowá-u
'dog'
kiextuén
'rabbit'		 kiáx̣nem
'rabbit'
pa=kwessom
'orphan'		 kuwosam
'small, little;
boy, girl'
malāux
'male sexual organs'		 melkuai
'female sexual organs'
xūm
'to die'		 kamau
'to kill'		 wátxuka
'to kill'
tzin
'I'		 yen
'I'
tzōtz
'chest'		 yeso knem
'to nurse'
*tšei
'to hear'		 ye
'to hear'
tilʼ
'posterior, anus'		 alel; (al)el
'leg'; 'buttocks,
backsides, bottom'
tām
'woman's breast'		 dom
'breast'
mās
'to look, observe'		 max, ma, mahe
'to see'
kuāx(ai)
'to suffer'		 kayau
'ache, sore'

The following sound changes and correspondences should be noted:

  • Vocalization of word-final *l in Cotoname: 'sun', 'straw', red'
  • Lenition of *p to /xw/ in Coahuilteco between vowels: #apel', #mapi
  • Syncope of
  • Apocope of final e (perhaps /ə/) in Comecrudo: 'man', 'low ', 'to kneel'.
  • /k/, /kw/ in other languages correspond to /x/, /xw/ in Cotoname, when before /a/ ('man', 'low ', 'to eat', 'to suck', 'to write'), as well as in Coahuilteco, when before any low vowel (__examples).
  • /kiV/ in Comecrudo corresponds to /kuV/ in Coahuilteco: 'blood', 'to go'
  • s ~ l (perhaps indicating a lateral fricative /ɬ/) in Comecrudo corresponds to s in Coahuilteco: Comecrudo 'blood', 'devil', 'to fall'.
  • Initial y in Comecrudo corresponds to /ts/ in Coahuilteco: I, chest, to hear

Lexical comparison

The Comecrudo, Cotoname, Karankawa, Coahuilteco, Solano, and Maratino data below are all from Swanton (1940). The Quinigua data is from Gursky (1964), which in turn is from del Hoyo (1960). Naolan is from Weitlaner (1948), and Tonkawa is from Hoijer (1949).

language head hair eye ear nose tooth tongue mouth hand foot breast meat blood bone person name
Comecrudo eláx eláx, emól u-i alí yáx̣ í expén xál mapí emí, lemí kném ewé, kai kiál ehûei, klemí, xí estók lekaú
Cotoname makuát makuát arókwan yá-ĕx ayésim kĕnám kemás sä'x xuaináxe
Karankawa en-okea ekia aikui em-ikus em-ai aluak é, dolonakin a-lean emi-akwoi étsma eham, kékeya kanín ahaks, tecoyu, úci, yámawe
Tonkawa taˑkey xʔaˑk nemtan-xaˑ henicxayʔan yamʔacxan ne̠ta̠le- kala nota- naˑtan ʔawas ʔoˑn ne̠kame- tickan hes-tewe-(toˑ-) 'to name (him)'
Coahuilteco māux tām ahāuh kuās, hātz pīlam aux
Solano nikaog
Maratino migtikui
Quinigua kai
Naolan mi yuːhu; ma yoho (my) ma naːme; manáme (of deer)
language dog fish louse tree leaf flower water fire stone earth salt road eat die I you
Comecrudo ketuaú, klám atuís, selaú ak 'blackish louse' xaí sel awaí, exnó, xaí, pawaí áx̣ klewém, len woyekuél kamlá sepén ál to, kai kamaú, plau, pokuét na, ye-inán, yén nánã
Cotoname kowá-u áx̣ mánĕx pén dá-än haháme wátĕxo
Karankawa kec áṃ, kiles akwiní klai, komkom húmhe, kwátci, kwoilesem dem, ketac aknámas náyi áwa
Tonkawa ʔekˑan neswalʔan xaˑsoy-tlc nahen- ʔaˑx mʔelʔan yatexan haˑc mamʔe- naˑx ya̠xa- hewawa- saˑ- naˑ-ya
Coahuilteco talōm tāp hām xūm, tzam na, tzin
Solano apam tciene namō 'eat it' na- (?)
Maratino migtikui paahtcu 'kill'
Quinigua karama ama, ami; ka ana ka, kwa, wa pixa ama ama; ka(ene)
Naolan mi; míː mi koːl; ma koːl (my) mi, ma (poss.)

References

  1. ^ a b Ramer, Alexis Manaster (1996). "Sapir's Classifications: Coahuiltecan". Anthropological Linguistics. 38 (1): 1–38. ISSN 0003-5483. JSTOR 30028442.
  2. ^ a b c d Swanton, John. 1940. Linguistic material from the tribes of southern Texas and northern Mexico.
  3. ^ Hoijer, Harry. 1949. An analytical dictionary of the Tonkawa language. University of California publications in linguistics, 5(1). Berkeley: University of California Press.
  4. ^ Swanton, John R. 1940. Linguistic material from the tribes of Southern Texas and Northeastern Mexico. (Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 127). Washington: Government Printing Office.
  5. ^ Gursky, Karl-Heinz (October 1964). "The Linguistic Position of the Quinigua Indians". International Journal of American Linguistics. 30 (4). The University of Chicago Press: 325–327. doi:10.1086/464792. JSTOR 1263527. S2CID 143736051.
  6. ^ del Hoyo, Eugenio. 1960. Vocablos de la Lengua Quinigua de los Indios Borrados del Noreste de México. Anuario del Centro de Estudios Humanisticos, Universidad de Nuevo León 1. 489-515.
  7. ^ Weitlaner, Roberto J.. 1948. Un Idioma Desconocido del Norte de México. In Actes du XXVIII Congrès International de Américanistes, 205-227. Paris.
  8. ^ Hoijer, Harry. 1949. An analytical dictionary of the Tonkawa language. University of California publications in linguistics, 5(1). Berkeley: University of California Press.

Further reading

  • Manaster Ramer, Alexis. 1996. Sapir's Classifications: Coahuiltecan. Anthropological Linguistics 38/1, 1–38.
  • Sapir, Edward. 1920. The Hokan and Coahuiltecan languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1 (4), 280–290.
  • Swanton, John R. (1915). Linguistic position of the tribes of southern Texas and northeastern Mexico. American Anthropologist, 17, 17–40.
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