In this article we will analyze the relevance of Gongduk language in the current context. Gongduk language has been a topic of interest in various fields and its impact has been felt in different ways. The role Gongduk language plays in society and how it has evolved over time needs to be thoroughly examined. From its origins to the present, Gongduk language has been the subject of debate and study, and it is essential to understand its importance in the current panorama. Through a comprehensive analysis, we will explore the different facets of Gongduk language and its influence on various aspects of daily life.
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Gongduk | |
---|---|
Gongdukpa Ang དགོང་འདུས་ | |
Region | Bhutan |
Native speakers | 2,000 (2006) |
Sino-Tibetan
| |
Tibetan script | |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | goe |
Glottolog | gong1251 |
ELP | Gongduk |
Gongduk or Gongdu (Tibetan: དགོང་འདུས་, Wylie: Dgong-'dus, it is also known as Gongdubikha) is an endangered Sino-Tibetan language spoken by about 1,000 people in a few inaccessible villages located near the Kuri Chhu river in the Gongdue Gewog of Mongar District in eastern Bhutan. The names of the villages are Bala, Dagsa, Damkhar, Pam, Pangthang, and Yangbari (Ethnologue).
Gongduk has complex verbal morphology, which Ethnologue considers a retention from Proto-Tibeto-Burman, and is lexically highly divergent. On this basis, it is apparently not part of any major subgroup and will probably have to be assigned to its own branch.
The people are said to have come from hunters that would move from place to place at times.
The language is notable for only being discovered by linguists in 1991. Currently, George van Driem is working towards the completion of a description of Gongduk based on his work with native speakers in the Gongduk area.
George van Driem (2001:870) proposes that the Greater Bumthang (East Bodish) languages, including Bumthang, Khengkha, and Kurtöp, may have a Gongduk substratum. Gongduk itself may also have a non-Tibeto-Burman substrate.[citation needed]
Gerber (2018) notes that Gongduk has had extensive contact with Black Mountain Mönpa before the arrival of East Bodish languages in Bhutan. Gongduk also has many Tshangla loanwords. The following comparative vocabulary table from Gerber (2020) compares Gongduk, Black Mountain Mönpa, and Bjokapakha, which is a divergent Tshangla variety.
Gloss | Gongduk | Black Mountain Mönpa | Bjokapakha |
---|---|---|---|
hair (on head) | θɤm | guluŋ | tsham |
tongue | dəli | líː | lɪ |
eye | mik | mek ~ mik | miŋ |
ear | nərəŋ | naktaŋ | nabali |
tooth | ɤn | áː ~ waː | sha |
bone | rukɤŋ | ɦɤtphok ~ yöphok | khaŋ |
blood | winiʔ | kɔk | yi |
hand/arm | gur | lɤk ~ lok | gadaŋ |
leg/foot | bidɤʔ | dɤkpɛŋ ~ tɛ̤kɛŋ | bitiŋ |
faeces | ki | cok | khɨ |
water | dɤŋli | cö, khe | ri |
rain | wɤ | ghö | ŋamtsu |
dog | oki | cüla ~ khula | khu |
pig | don | pɔk | phakpa |
fish | kuŋwə | nye̤ | ŋa |
louse | dɤr | θæːk | shiŋ |
bear | bekpələ | wɤm ~ wom | omsha |
son | ledə | bæθaː | za |
daughter | medə | bæmɛt | zamin |
name | kət | mön ~ min | mɨŋ |
house | kiŋ | mhiː̤ ~ mhe̤ː | phai |
fire | mi | áːmik ~ áːmit | mɨ |
to hear | lə yu- | goː- | nai tha- |
to see | tɤŋ- | tuŋ- | thoŋ- |
to look | məl- ~ mɤt- | mak- | got- |
to sit | mi- ~ mu- | buŋ- ~ bæŋ- | laŋ- |
to die | komθ- | θɛː- ~ θɛʔ- | shi- |
to kill | tɤt- | θüt- ~ θut- ~ θit | she- |
Gloss | Gongduk | Black Mountain Mönpa | Bjokapakha |
---|---|---|---|
one | ti | tɛk | thur |
two | niktsə | nhü | ɲiktsiŋ |
three | towə | sam | sam |
four | piyə | blö | pshi |
five | ŋəwə | lɔŋ | ŋa |
six | kukpə | o̤ːk | khuŋ |
seven | ðukpə | nyí | zum |
eight | yitpə | jit | yɪn |
nine | guwə | doːga | gu |
ten | deyə | chö | se |
Pronoun | Gongduk | Black Mountain Mönpa | Bjokapakha |
---|---|---|---|
1SG | ðə | kö | jaŋ |
2SG | gi | iŋ | nan |
3SG | gon | hoʔma (MAS); hoʔmet (FEM) | dan |
1PL | ðiŋ | ɔŋdat (INCL); anak (EXCL) | ai |
2PL | giŋ | iŋnak | nai |
3PL | gonmət | hoʔoŋ | dai |
Gongduk has productive suffixal morphology (van Driem 2014).
Examples:
However, non-human plural nouns do not take on any suffixes, and remain the same:
Examples:
Examples:
Examples:
Gongduk demonstratives precede head nouns.
Examples:
Gongduk has the following personal pronoun paradigm.
singular (absolutive) | singular (ergative & genitive) | plural (absolutive) | plural (ergative & genitive) | dual (absolutive) | dual (ergative & genitive) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
first person | ðə | ðe | ðiŋ | ðiŋ, ðiŋ ŋəŋpoe | ||
second person | gi | gi | giŋ | giŋ, giŋ ŋəŋpoe | ||
third person | gon | gonðe | gonmə | gonməe, gonma ŋəŋpoe | ||
inclusive | iθi, iθirəŋ gəŋpo | dei, dei gəŋpoe |
van Driem (2014) compares the Gongduk first person singular personal pronoun ðə 'I, me' to Kathmandu Newar dʑiː ~ dʑĩ- 'I, me' and Tshangla dʑaŋ ~ dʑi- ~ dʑiŋ- 'I, me'. He also compares the Gongduk first person plural personal pronoun ðiŋ 'we, us' to Kathmandu Newar dʑʰai ~ dʑʰĩ- 'we, us'.
The Gongduk words and phrases below are from van Driem (2014).